Should Marketers Test Advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Should Marketers Test Advertising - Essay Example The company is even interested in obtaining the path of outsourcing to go for extensive video ad tests. We can mention the name of Wall Street Journal among the companies which are featuring video ads for Google. (McKee, 2007; Mills, 2008)It is also said that one advertisement pre-test is not enough for understanding the future of a product. This is because of the fact that a single test cannot cover all the aspects which are to be looked after by an advertisement. Therefore testing of an advertisement must be taken as an ongoing process. So there is no question of refuting ad pre-tests for saving money by the marketers. A huge amount of money will be lost if the real advertisement does not work and this will lead to a total failure of the product. The company will not get any way out of the situation. Testing of an ad clears up all the confusions regarding the future. If one testing fails and the results are not that clear, the marketers should go for a second time. To achieve succe ss one should not be impatient. We can take a look at the Facebook advertisement tests which the company ran for a long time before launching a more attractive website throughout the world. (â€Å"Facebook’s ‘Engagement Ads’ tests the waters†, 2008)When ad pre-tests are concerned telemarketing is said to be the best point to start. This is a medium where the marketers do not need to expend a huge amount of money and still they can get a clear response from the side of the common mass. It has been observed that telephonic conversations.

Artistotle Rhetoric Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Artistotle Rhetoric - Essay Example Hence, Aristotle’s approach of arguments is consistent concerning the use of emotional appeal. He explicitly elaborates that people’s perception of a speaker is a reflection of the appeal to their self-interest, inner sense of identity, and importantly their emotions Cognitive theory of the emotions that Aristotle based his arguments are frameworks that relate feelings with psychological status of individuals expressing them. Cognitive theories give all types of human emotions a genuine and noticeable cognitive thought. In relation to perceived appeal to the individual pathos, cognitive theories help to stamp notion that thoughts and other mental actions perform crucial roles in the development of emotions. Aristotle advances cognitive theory by illustrating the power of emotional appeal in arguments, speeches or personal relationships. Notably, Aristotle’s rhetoric’s emphasizes that pathos is a logical fallacy that can manipulate emotions and facilitate winning of an argument even in the absence of realistic evidence. In other words, emotion is structure of discourse. Thus, Aristotle further elaborates that human beings make decisions based on emotional aspects or appeals. Nonetheless, Aristotle’s theory of emotional appeal has some limitations. For instance, it addresses argumentative and non-argumentative implements of persuasion with considering conflicting perspectives. At some point, this theory outlines that argumentative technique becomes less effective because of worse condition of the audience. Thus, the theory fails to address emotional aspects of listeners

An Infants Innate Proximity Seeking Behaviour Psychology Essay

An Infants Innate Proximity Seeking Behaviour Psychology Essay Bowlbys classical attachment theory (1969/ 1982, 1973) is an ethological theory emphasising the regulatory functions of an infants innate proximity-seeking behaviours directed towards their primary caregiver. Fundamentally, it classifies the infant-caregiver relationship as the foundation of an infants future social development and further ability to form relationships. Bowlby believed that a childs attachment with its caregiver governs the development of internal working models (or mental representations) which the child subsequently applies to relationships with other people and in general, the social world. In turn he proposed that by determining the nature of an infants attachment with their caregiver (considered primarily to be the mother in this case), an infants future social behaviour patterns could be predicted i.e. certain attachment types would lead to certain behaviour types as a result of these internal working models (1973). Attachment types were formally assessed via t he Strange Situation experiment (Ainsworth et al. 1978), out of which three basic types were discerned: the secure and the insecure: anxious/ambivalent and insecure: avoidant. A fourth attachment style insecure: disorganised was later included, encompassing an insecure attachment style which couldnt reliably be characterised as either anxious or avoidant (Van Ijzendoorn et al.; 1999). Attachment theory is intrinsically relevant to psychoanalysis; being characterised as an attempt to update classical psychoanalysis (otherwise lacking empirical evidence; Kihlstrom, 1999), in light of advancements in evolutionary biology and cognition (Ainsworth et al. 1978, Schore Schore, 2008). Fonagy (***) has extensively outlined the commonalties of both; fundamentally, both theoretical perspectives class anxiety as engendered by loss and postulate a non-isomorphic relationship to exist between (mental) representations and their external referents whereby the former moreso reflect the psychic reality from which the latter are perceived. Related to this, Fonagy has likened the internal working models (IWM) of attachment theory to the mental representations (MR) of psychoanalysis, further distinguishing them by highlighting that the IWM are processed implicitly as opposed to explicitly (MR) and are stored in procedural as opposed to episodic memory (MR). Additionally, in both, personality development is conceived as most primarily a function of early social context, where infancy is a potent period of intense growth and the importance of the maternal figure is emphasised. The development of mentalisation (in Fonagys terms) which is akin to a theory of mind, or set of empathic-based processes is also key for growth in both. Finally, both Freud (1895) and Bowlby (1963) emphasised the role of early trauma in later vulnerability to psychopathology. While many are reticent in accepting the implications of attachment theory and the possible anti-therapeutic effects of the labelling ethos it subscribes to (***), its cogency is difficult to deny considering its wide base of empirical support and its enduring legacy. The latter point is fortified by the well-documented recent resurgence of classical attachment theory initiated by the rise of neuroscience (the decade of the brain) and its transformation into modern attachment theory (Slater, 2007) . Specifically, it can be said to underscore the advent of neuropsychoanalysis (a branch of interpersonal neurobiology; Siegal, 2001; Schore Schore, 2008); an assimilation of neuroscientific and psychoanalytic principles. With such links and terms thus established, the ensuing aim of this essay is to outline the modern re-conceptualisation of attachment theory, which draws on neuroscience and forges a link between psychoanalysis and mainstream science. The neurobiological components underlying attachment will be outlined and discussed in relation to affect regulation. The subtext of the essay will be the implicit relevance of psychoanalysis and its use for modern practice which contrapose condemnations of it as being theoretically dead (i.e. Kihlstrom, 1999). According to Whitehead (2006), psychoanalysis has undergone three major revolutions (currently in its third) since its inception, namely the Classical-Freudian, Post-Freudian and the third, currently wheeling, revolution characterised by a return to the project of mind-body integration which Freud abandoned. Indeed, while the likes of Freud eschewed neurological findings from theories of self and personality (vowing to stick with the psychological realm) a number of psychoanalytically minded researchers are reconciling the two to form a field of research coined neuropsychoanalysis (Schore, 2002), which implicitly underlines mind-body integration in accordance with psychoanalytic principles via appeal to attachment theory and neuroscience; undergoing periods of resurgence and dominance, respectively, as of late (Slater, 2007). The advent of neuropsychoanalysis has also coincided with a new appraisal of the problem regarding the interface between outer reality and the inner fantasy wor lds of the individual which Freud found problematic (Whitehead, 2006) reflected in the shift from one-person to two-person psychology (Pulver, 2001) arguably based on the advent and predominance of object relations theory propounded most evidently by Klein and Winnicott. The fundamental point of object relations was an emphasis on the role of interpersonal interactions in the development of personality and mind. The self psychology of Kohut (1957*) is in some ways an offshoot of object relations theory and engenders the most fertile and evident link between psychoanalysis and attachment theory; specifically considering that it has been taken as the basis for many explications of the neurophysiological underpinnings of the attachment process (i.e. Schore Schore, 2002; Shore, 2008; 1994). As explicated by Schore Schore (2002), Kohuts self-psychology concerns itself with four fundamental issues: 1) the emergence of self 2) the structuring of self 3) the genesis of psychopathology as a function of deficits in the structure of self and 4) the manifold manner in which psychotherapy may instigate change in the self. All of such issues have been addressed explicitly via modern attachment theory and its neurobiological underpinnings, the first three of which will be focussed on here. Most significantly, the other is required for the emergence of self (i.e. intersubjectivity engenders subjectivity). For Kohut coupling with the self-object (i.e. the primary caregiver) facilitates affect regulation and the establishment of internal homeostatic equilibrium which precedes (structuring of) burgeoning selfhood. This reflects the aforementioned two-person psychology which characterises the current revolution of psychoanalysis; most apparent in (modern) attachment theory which will subsequently be discussed in greater detail. The main aim of the first year of life is to form an attachment with the primary care-giver which will facilitate subsequent emergence of self and the optimal psychobiological development. To accommodate this is an innate, attachment behavioural system which manifests in a number of instinctual behaviours (or attachment strategies) undertaken by the infant in an attempt to form such an attachment (Siegal, 2001). The primary attachment strategy engaged in by the infant is proximity-seeking; in moments of distress or threat the infants seeks out the primary caregiver as a source of security and comfort (Mikulincer, Sahver and Pereg, 2003). Attachment is achieved, whilst proximate to the caregiver, via inter-subjective interactions (engagement) with the self-object (attachment figure) through affect-laden face to face interactions not strictly limited to visual stimulation (i.e. gaze episodes) but multi-modal (i.e. all senses implicated) emotional transactions. Evidencing the innate ca pacity to engage in such interactions are studies demonstrating infants as young as 12 days old imitating facial expressions (Eltzoff Moore, 1977) and making facial movements in response to communications from the mother expressions which, coupled with those of the mother, assist interpersonal contact and affect regulation (Trevarther, 1985). The sensitivity and responsiveness of the self-object are pivotal for optimal attachment sensitivity inheres that the self-object will recognise when engagement and affect regulation are required (i.e. in times of distress) while responsiveness entails a successful interpretation of social cues, regarding affect, as provided by the infant. The self-object, if sensitive and responsive, may facilitate the minimisation of negative affect and the increase of positive affect, that is, regulation of the infants affect-states a process which gradually become internalised by the infant (Schore Schore, 2008). This occurs as a function of appropriate, consistent responses to such social cues (affect synchrony) permitting the development of mechanisms of anticipation the infant learns of a correspondence between their own actions and the responses of others (and will begin to gauge just how their affects/experiences may be regulated). This in turn facilitates a self-other distinction to be made in which internal working models of the self and the self-object are constructed, engendering processes through which the infant may begin to modify their own behaviour in light of their dyadic interactions with the self-object. As I see it, these processes effectively pre-empt the emergence of subjective consciousness. Particularly, Lipton et al (1999) has associated the development of orbito-frontal systems at this time of development with the infants integration of past, present and future experiences; which permits anticipation of future states of self and reflection on past states. In phenomeno logical terms, this manifests as the emergence of temporality; one of the fundamental tenets and characterisations of intentionality (i.e. consciousness; Husserl, 1952). This may be considered the foundation of the self, corroborating with self-reflexivity (i.e. the establishment of an internal working model of the temporal self) which emerges at this time in line with the above assertions of Liptons. Indeed Slater (2007) has suggested that this marks the beginning of an internalisation of the attachment figure i.e. the accessing of IWM/ MR of the self-object facilitates anticipation of future events and their instantiation of affect regulation. More specifically, as will be discussed, the process of internalising the schematics produced via the dyadic relationship with the self-object become to be gradually subsumed under the rubric of self. That is, the constellation of beliefs structured around representations of self and other bear affect regulation strategies which are elicited in future times of distress. Should such beliefs reflect an unavailability or insufficiency of response from the self-object, secondary attachment strategies are cultivated which manifest attempts at affect regulation other than aforementioned proximity-seeking (Mikulincer et al. 2003). To explicate this point further, comprising the in-born attachment behavioural system (Mikulincer, Sahver and Pereg, 2003) are a number of dynamic processes which govern which set of attachment strategies will be engaged in. These processes comprise of the infants monitoring and appraisal of: a) events (deeming whether or not theyre threatening), b) the availability of the attachment figure and c) the viability of proximity seeking as a means of dealing with a possibly threatening situation. Should an event be appraised as threatening, the infant considers whether or not the attachment figure is available. If the attachment figure is deemed unavailable, secondary attachment strategies classed as deactivating are implemented (characterising the avoidant attachment style). If the attachment figure is deemed available but non-responsive or insufficient in their engagement (i.e. inefficient in their affect regulation), secondary strategies classed as hyper-activating are employed (consti tuting the anxious attachment style). Finally if they are appraised as available and responsive, proximity seeking behaviour is undertaken as already outlined and engagement takes place (secure attachment). According to Dozier and Lee (1995) corresponding to each specific attachment style is a schema for appraisal of ones own self-concept, whereby insecure attachments lead to distortions in such appraisals whilst secure attachments manifest as appraisals of self as worthy and lovable (Schore, 1994) . Namely the avoidant strategies instigate a denial of feelings of distress when they arise while those of the anxious category amplify such feelings. In line with this characterisation it might be suggested that such appraisals lead to re-enforcement of such schemas which consequently persist into later life. Indeed, the continuity of attachment styles, from infancy onwards, according to Mikulincer et al. (2003) is grounded in the inhibitory/excitatory network which accompanies the activation of attachment strategies. Specifically, implementation of hyper-activating strategies acts to increase sensitivity to later threatening event appraisal and evaluation of the availability of the attachment figure, whereby innocuous events are more likely to be deemed threatening and greater attempts to elicit responses from the attachment figure are made. The resultant state of hyperarousal (****) manifests in an over-zealous urgency to be close to the attachment figure. The deactivating strategies on the other hand desensitise the individual to appraising events as threatening and similarly decrease the likelihood of appraisals of the AF as being available. This manifests in a sort of dissociativeness (***); the individual disavows concern as to whether or not a figure is available from which they mi ght garner support and comfort. Due to previous frustration with the stress-response system, arising from it not being adequately handled, the avoidant infant acts to deactivate it altogether (Cassidy Kobak, 1988). Consistent with the neuropsychoanalytic approach; the neurobiological underpinnings of such a system are evident through appeal to the intense synaptic growth (neuron overproduction) experienced in the brain during early infancy (Siegal, 2001). Specifically during the earlier periods of infancy synaptic pruning occurs driven by environmental interaction. In a use it or lose it fashion those connections which are not implemented are pruned away under the guise that they are not needed in the current environment; those that are, are fortified, fine-tuned and maintained. As such it is considered that interpersonal experiences directly shape genetically driven unfolding of the human brain (p72, Siegal, 2001). In this manner it is readily conceivable as to how early interpersonal experiences shape cognitive and affective processes which consequently persist into later periods of life. Schore (1994) has localised processes underlying the attachment process further, namely implicating attachment in the development of the right-brain, the neurobiological core of human consciousness. According to Schore (2001), the right brain dominant in infancy- houses the developing limbic system and remains the hemisphere most dominant for stress response throughout life due to its links to the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the somatic aspects of stressor responses i.e. fight or flight. To this extent, engagement between the infant and caregiver is characterised by a coupling of the AFs right brain with the infants right brain the consequent transactions are non-verbal, affect laden and intrinsically informative of the shaping of the unconscious (Schore Schore, 2008). Psychoanalytic principles are thus represented insomuch that components of the right brain operate at a free-associative, non-verbal and unconscious level (indeed Schore has emphasised that psychotherapy implicitly involves a connecting of clients right brain to therapists right brain) and implicitly exerts influence, as will be outlined presently, on the processes of cognition (Schore Schore, 2008). Indeed, the right hemisphere has been involved in the storage of information pertaining to the emotional ties we have to certain experiences and events (Shuren Grafman, 2002). Accordingly, encountering familiar events leads to a recall of related non-verbal, non-conscious emotional content which further instigate specific reasoning processes which are implemented in the appraisal of such experiences. The link between affect and cognition is well documented and another field of research which modern attachment theory and neuropsychoanalysis forge a mutually-beneficial tie with (Robins Zacks**). Specifically, research from the field of affective cognitive neuroscience has shown that the neural circuits involved in cognition overlap and intertwine with those involved in affect (emotion) (****); as suggested by modern attachment theory. As such, taking this into consideration we can validly assert, through inference, the role attachment strategies/behaviours play on engendering particular patterns of cognition i.e. attachment effects (and affects) cognition (Mikulincer et al. 2003) . Studies by Mikulincer Sheffi (2000) and Pereg (2001) demonstrate, for example, that inducement of negative affect leads to a greater recall of positive thoughts amongst securely attached than those who are anxiously attached, who conversely recall significantly less positive cognitions and significantly greater negative thoughts indicating the amplification of negative affect input and its pervasive effects in the brain suffusing regions of working memory and cognition. Meanwhile, in both studies, cite the authors, those who were avoidant in their attachment styles demonstrated no particular differences in cognitive functioning as a result of positive or negative affect inducement; supporting the hypothesis that those of the avoidant category tend to dismiss and dissociate themselves from sources of distress. To further propound these points, Gillath et al (2005) found that attachment-related anxiety positively correlated with the activation of emotion-implicated areas of the brain and inversely correlated with the activation of areas involved in affect regulation (i.e. the orbito-frontal cortex); paralleling ties between anxious attachment and distress amplification/affect dysregulation (Dozier and Lee, 1995). Furthermore, coinciding with Schores (2002) emphasis on the right brain as centre of self and regulatory/ stress response systems, affective disorders such as depression and dysthymic personality traits have links with the right hemisphere of the brain. Liotti Tucker (1992) for example document that depression interferes with the functions of right hemisphere activity by influencing its arousal mechanisms. Related to this point, a plethora of studies support both Freud and Bowlbys assertions that early insecure attachments increase vulnerability to later psychopathology; specifically whereas the internalisation of affect-regulation schematics conducive to minimisation and manageability of distress occurs in secure attachment, a later to resilience to stressors is observed. Insecure attachments, however, with their accompanying internalised distortion of self-concept and detrimental (under/over) appraisal of threatening events and the disproportioning of the availability of support, lead to a documented increased vulnerability to psychopathology (Schore, 2004*). Indeed, if we consider attachment theory as a theory of affect regulation and affective disorders such as depression as forms of affect dysregulation (Sroufe Waters, 1977) a link between both (attachment styles and psychopathological vulnerability) seems readily tenable. Forbes Dahl (2005), for example, suggest that depression instead of a disorder in which there is an abnormal increase in negative affect; rather is a disorder reflected in the diminished activation of positive affect systems and motivation. This aligns with definitions of its major syndromal-features i.e. anhedonia (diminished capacity for enjoyment), fatigue (diminished motivation) and social withdrawal (diminished enthusiasm). As such we might infer that strategies for minimising negative affect and increasing positive affect (established in infancy) are inefficient in some way. The authors cite many examples of studies which espouse this consideration; for example, adults with MDD have shown diminished response to positive stimuli; in some instances evincing similar responses as if it were aversive. Furthermore, depressive adults have demonstrated lower expectancy of positive events in their futures. Additionally, studies have shown how adults with anxious attachment (hyperactivation strategies); more readily access painful memories, while demonstrating exaggerated appraisal of negative events and are subsequently more vulnerable to depression (Mikulincer and Orbach, 1995). While many may criticise attachment theory as being highly pessimistic derogating the possibilities for a child who happens to present with an insecure attachment style to have a positive future free from psychopathological vulnerability, it is fair to say that it wasnt the intent of Bowlby to delineate such a deterministic perspective. Indeed, as Siegal (2001) points out, the brain is plastic throughout the lifespan and as such attachment capacities can change. Furthermore, positive social factors such as prevailing support of peers may act to alter and/or loosen implicit secondary attachment strategies. Wu (2010) for example has cited that self esteem mediates the relationship between self-concept appraisal and attachment style, therefore social factors which bolster self-esteem might be seen as re-adjusting self-appraisal thereby breaking the re-enforcing patterns of negative self-perception. In addition, while many have emphasised the maternal role in the development of such att achment patterns, others have advised that the infant can develop different attachment styles in accordance to their interactions with different people (Siegal, 2001); as such there are a number of mediating factors which imply that early insecure attachment status to one figure isnt as condemning as oft considered. To conclude: this essay has outlined how classical attachment theory, rooted in psychoanalysis, has been transformed into modern attachment theory coinciding with the recent advent of neuropsychoanalysis; that is, a branch of neuroscience dealing with the interpersonal facilitations of neurobiological development, as advocated by object relations theory and self psychology which are themselves rooted in psychoanalysis. This third revolution of psychoanalysis heralds a return to the problems once confronted by Freud namely the mind/body separation and the interface between inner and external realities, and with attempts to resolve them comes a greater alliance between psychoanalysis and mainstream science. Modern attachment theory as framework for many studies in affect (dys-)regulation have furthermore supported earlier postulations of Bowlbys and Freuds that earlier abnormal development and trauma may predict later vulnerability to psychopathology.

Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

"The greatest danger for most of us is not that our aim was too high and we missed it, but that it was too low and we reached it." Michelangelo Because "Humanity is divided into three parts: 1. those who make things happen 2. those who watch things happen 3. and those who don't know what's happening." Unknown And right now we seem to fall into category three, but today we have an opportunity to change that. We can stray from living our lives patterned after how we behaved in high school. As graduates we have all become equals. We are without any restraints. Social status, personalities, and disagreements can be left in the past. And as we give up the past in order to be ready for the future, opportunity lies at the door. "You must begin to think of yourself as b...

To What Extent Does Globalisation Economically

Module Code: PM504 2T (SS1) Class/Group: Group A, Class F Module Title: Skills for Study 1 Assessment: Essay Assignment Title: To what extent does globalisation economically benefit developing countries? Tutor Name: Graham Henderson Student ID Number: 2059661 Date of Submission: October 25, 2012 Globalization is a source of both hope and apprehension, especially for developing countries. During the past several decades the greater accesses to developing country markets have improved the productivity and living standard and brought significant benefits to economic growth of the world.On the other hand, these positive influences coincide with shaper polarization, heighted the level of inequality within developed and developing countries (Stallings, 2007). Therefore, this essay will contend that the growth provided by globalization in developing countries is short-term; in the long-term, the huge capital flows, the exploitation of labor and the depletion of resources will create  an i mbalance  in  global order which will benefit  neither  developing, nor  developed countries.Therefore, the aspects of foreign investment liberalization will be introduced firstly, and then will be international division of labor and management of natural resources will be analyzed thirdly. At last, the conclusion of this essay will be drawn. Recently, the majority of developing countries trend to rely on private capital as a source of funding. Since the early 1990s, the external capital flows have made a great contribution to the funding that has made up over 75% (Tanzi, 2004:532).The major reason to this capital flow, from less than 30% in the early 1990s to nearly 70% in total by 1998 of sharing on funding, is foreign direct investment (FDI) consistently (UNCTAD, 2003). Since the late of 20th century, due to the great benefits from foreign investment, many countries, developing countries in particular, have changed or created the policies and environment to be more amen able to FDI (Abeles, 2001:12). FDI is an essential element to the economic growth of developing countries, according to a neo-classical economic perspective (Craves, 1996).It means that developing countries obtain the benefits directly from FDI through an inflow of capital, tax revenues, and employment, and indirectly through the technology and knowledge from the foreign investor’s to local enterprises and workers (Svenssion, 2002:576). In addition, the structure of the industry is running to a new level though the entry of competitive foreign enterprises. As a result, to survive in this increasingly competitive environment, local firms are becoming more efficient to raise the productivity to be more competitive; hence, the economic growth rate of developing countries is improved directly.In contrast, FDI may be detrimental to economic development of developing countries since large amount of foreign investment is negative for local enterprises in long-term. Domestic enterpri ses are crowded by foreign companies such as some leading multinational corporation (e. g. Apple, Mobil, etc) from developed countries, since they are often significantly superior to local firms. This effect reduces the competition in market and then the industry is dominated by foreign entities.The panel study of Agosin and Mayer (2000:150)  found that the effect of FDI in Asia, Latin America and Africa, the domestic investment is crowded out. Thus,  Agosin and Mayer (2000:164)  conclude that the effects of FDI are not always positive and that FDI policy plays a role in determining the outcome. With the process of globalization, production becomes more globalized, labor market comes to play a greater role in determining the efficiency and productivity of industry. Theoretically, to achieve optimal flexibility of labour market, international division of labour becomes more and more significant (Benner, 2009:69).It is the spatial  division of labour  which occurs when the p rocess of  production, and it is also known as â€Å"global industrial shift† which means relocated form developed countries (USA, Europe) to developing countries (Asia, Africa, Latin America) to reduce the costs. There is no doubt that the international division of labour reforms the market and brings many advantages to developing countries in short-term. Firms can access to a much larger labour force easily and, thus, this more flexible and competitive market reduces the cost and increased the profits. Therefore, the economic growth rate is improved.In addition, the employment opportunities and wages for employees can be raised in developing countries. However, IDL also has its negative side in long-term. Along the lines of the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, it is argued that an increase in commodity trade with unskilled labour-abundant, low-wage countries leads to an increase in the wage rate of skilled workers and depresses the wage rate of unskilled workers, according to E ckel (2003:181). Therefore it turns into the inequality in wage and even leads to the loss of employee in the home country, especially in developing countries, and it becomes sharper.An international comparison, Gini coefficients, can be used to determine the economic inequality. The average Gini ratio for private households’ net income climbed from 0. 29 in 1985 to 0. 65 in 2010 (Afonso and Schuknecht  , 2011:382). If the Gini index is 0, the income is perfectly equality, 1 stands for absolute inequality. Therefore, the inequality has increased by over twice from the study by Afonso and Schuknecht. It is not only happen in developing countries, but also in developed countries such as UK, Italy and especially in US, with 0. 5 for Gini index (Bee, 2012). Obviously, IDL enhance the inequality. Globalization is also a process to industrialize and modernizing many developing countries, by maximizing the usage and availability of natural resources. For example, due to globalizat ion both India and China are gaining more knowledge and wealth. They can translate their abundant resources into materials to produce more consumer goods, more cars, more fuel consumption, and, more of everything. Then the living standard is improved obviously.In contrast, Curtis (2009:431) claims that globalization also permits developed countries to take advantage of developing countries’ natural resources. As the high availability of natural resource, developed countries obtain the cheap raw material from the suppliers, most of them are developing countries such as China and India, where the final price of the product is much higher. Thus, the majority of the profits go to the developed countries (Yu, 2010:184). Moreover, the increasing trends of consumption could cause the shortage of natural resources both renewable and non-renewable resources definitely (Geyer, 2003:1237).The resource depletion is likely to bring an end to globalization, the most likely to be limiting i n the short term is energy, since the world’s economy is dependent on oil. Thus, the imbalanced or unsustainable development of natural resources is positive to neither developing nor developing countries. Many countries especially developing countries with open policies and environment, cheap labour force and abundant natural resources have gained significant benefits from globalization. During the period of 2006-2010 in China, the target of the growth of gross domestic product (GDP) of government is set to be 11. % per year (Liang and Teng, 2012). With the raised of productivity of workers, employment opportunities, and the easy accessibility to the worldwide market, to every corner of the world, more and more people regard the globalization as a necessary factor to improve their lives. However, human only attains a few successes during the promotion of globalization in short-term, but incurring tremendous loss from the negative sides in long-term from FDI, IDL and the use of natural resources. This imbalanced development will benefit  neither  developing, nor  developed countries.Obviously, the negative association of shaper inequality and openness will hold up when people do a critical analysis on globalization. Word count: 1120 References Abeles, T. P. (2001). The Impact of Globalization. On the Horizon, 9(2), pp 12 – 14. Afonso, A. and Schuknecht, L. (2011). Income distribution determinants and public spending efficiency. Journal of Economic Inequality, 8(3), pp 367-389. Agosin, M. R. and Mayer, R. (2005). Foreign investment in developing countries: Does it crowd in domestic investment? Oxford Development Studies, 33(2), pp 149-162.Bee, A. (2012, March 8th). Household Income Inequality Within U. S. Counties: 2006–2010. U. S. Census Bureau News. Benner, C. (2009). Labor Flexibility. International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 63(4), pp 66-71. Craves, R. E. (1996). Multinational enterprise and economic analysis. Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press. Curtis, F. (2009). Peak globalization: Climate change, oil depletion and global trade. Ecological Economics, 69(2), pp 427-434. Eckel, C. (2003). Labor market adjustments to globalization: unemployment versus relative wages.The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, 14(2), pp 173-188. Geyer, F. (2003). Globalization and sustainability: the cynics, the romantics and the realists. Kybernetes, 32(9), pp 1235-1252. Liang, Q. and Teng, J. (2012). Financial development and economic growth: Evidence from China. China Economic Review, 17(4), pp 395-411. Stallings, B. (2007). The Globalization of Capital Flows: Who Benefits? New York: Sage Publications, Inc. Svensson, G. (2002). Beyond global marketing and the globalization of marketing activities.Management Decision, 40(6), pp 574 – 583. Risso, W. A. and Carrera, E. S. (2012). Inequality and economic growth in China. Journal of Chinese Economic and Foreign Trade Studies, 5(2), pp 80-90. Tanzi, V. (2 004). Globalization and the need for fiscal reform in developing countries. Journal of Policy Modeling, 26(4), pp525-542. UNCTAD. (2003). World investment report: FDI policies for development and international perspectives. Geneva: UNU Press. Yu, W. (2010). China Rules: Globalization and Political Transformation. Chinese Management Studies, 4(2), pp 184-185.

International Student Identity Essay

Identity is sort of behaviour that can be symbolized by individual or communities by showing how they interact to each other and how they represent their culture of origin. These essay will discuss and analyse some theories of indentity through culture and languange views and then show the reader how these lense might influence international student identity. The structure of essay will be organised as follows; First of all, introduction will explain an overview of it. This is followed by describing the theory of identity. The next section is about discussion of identity by using culture and language focuses. Furthermore, writer will explain the impact of new culture and language to international student’s current and future experience. Finally, a conslusion paragraph will be the final section of the essay. What is Identity? In last three decades, the theory of identity evolves continously. According to Borowski (1976, 501), identity does not have a definite concept. Many scholars explore what identity is. For example, in his paper, Burke and Reitzes (1981) summarise the work of McCall and Simmons (1966), Stryker (1968), and Burke and Tully (1977) to divide the concept of identity in three unique characteristics that are, identities are produced by society, identities are personal sense, and identities are spontaneous and representational character. This distinctive feature is obtained by an individual throughout childhood period to become his/her fundamental character (Sokefeld et. al. 1999, 2). Later on, Fearon (1999, 4) broadly explains that identity of a person can be defined as social identity (a person is recognised by â€Å"rules deciding membership and performed characteristic features or attributes†) and personal category (special feature, might be permanent, that make a person is looked important by society). Furthermore, Hall (1990, 222) argues that the theories of identity keep to be produced, â€Å"which is never complete, always in process and always constituted within, not outside, representation† In addition, there are still challenges to identity theory to have obvious meanings that related to self and society (Stryker and Burke 2000, 284). Culture Identity According to archaeological term (SAA 2008), culture means â€Å"a set of learned beliefs, values and behaviours the way of life shared by the members of a society. † It is performed because there is relationship between each of members (Ferdman 1990, 186). They usually gather in a group of society. For example, if some Javanese people (one of Indonesian ethnics) live outside of Indonesia, they tend to live in a place where other Javanese live. They interact with each other and applying Javanese’s values that they have before. These dispositions maintain and develop their values and applying it in their daily living. Other people who are not a member of that society might look this mind-set as culture identity of that society. In addition, Hall (1990, 229) argues that cultural identities are the special character that emerge from history and culture. For instance, culture identities of England and Ireland are quite same, because they have similar history and culture. Cultural identity represents individual or group’s behaviour. According to Kochman (1987, 220 cited in Ferdman 1990, 190), cultural identity can be represented by ethnic and indirect link between an individual and the group. It has main value that the beliefs and act becomes a symbol of the group, and the member realise that he/she has direct relationship with the most important and unique part of their culture (Smolic 1981, 75-77 cited in Ferdman 1990, 190) . This value is simple, however its â€Å"malleability, imprecision, and multivocality†, make cultural identity become complicated (Cohen 1993, 202). Furthermore, it can be influenced by anything because of cultural identity is unstable (Hall 1990, 229). Language Identity Language is generally used when people interact to each other. Yihong et. al. (2005, 39) state that language is not just to communicate, but It associated with culture which create one’s self-identity. Moreover, it represents the identity of a society (Miller 2000, 69). For example, International students from Indonesia, Middle East countries, or China, will speak by using their native language when they interact to student from same country. Indonesian language, Arabic language, Mandarin or Cantonese languages are their identity. People might know who they are by listening to their conversation. Language and identity can not be separated. Scholars argue that language use and identity is inherent with social practices and membership (Miller 2000, 69). He also affirms that self-representation is a product of language use and identity (Miller 2000, 69). How person speaks, what type of vocabularies, represent the identity of the speaker. For instance, a truck driver will not use same language as a Professor use, and a postgraduate student has different style of language that high school student does. Even though they have same mother tongue, such as English, they speak differently because they come from different society. Their identity shows what and how they differ. International Student Identity People who pursue their study to overseas’ university will have new identity as international student. They become member of student society. During study, each individual enacts its duty as student (Fearon 1999, 19). A student can be seen by another member of society as college student, or the other way around. Furthermore, he or she may establish a self-identity embedded with academic consequences (Reitzes and Burke 1982 cited in Reitzes and Burke 1991, 243). By representing their new identity, they should study hard, submit the assignment on time, do some examinations, interact to other students and lecturer, and so on. Being international student in Australia, a person who comes from country which has different culture and language use will do some adjustments related with culture and language. He or she should accustom with Australian or western culture, and using English language more frequent. These adjustments may be done to make his or her study successful and to make their live during here easy. For instance, using English language to communicate to another student from different country and lecturer or tutor is a must; otherwise he or she can not interact. Another illustration is when he or she has group assignment which requires working with Australian student or western countries’ student. Possibly, Australian people is very common with assertive behaviour (Putnis and Petelin 2007, 3. 3), which can annoy him or her. Instead of the study group is unsuccessful, acceptation to this behaviour should be considered, since it has positive impact to the group. Postgraduate student identity It is very interesting for me to deal with new culture. I have to make a lot of adjustments while I am here. For example, I should say â€Å"thank you† to the bus driver to show my politeness and appreciation. It might be sort of Australian culture which is unusual attitude in my country. Another case is about calling a lecturer or someone who has higher position than me just by mentioning his or her first name. For the first time, it is so unfamiliar for me, because in Indonesia, I have to call them by saying ‘Mr’ or ‘Mrs’ before their name. In spite of the example above, I am very surprised to know that drinking alcohol and get drunk is frequently done by most of Australian people. They always do this thing every week end. Using English as new constraint language in the university is a remarkable thing for me. All things that related with my study are in English. At the beginning, it is quite difficult for me to be used to English language, because English is not my first or second language. However, I must try hard to improve my English, by speaking and interacting more often with other native or international student. After all, now I feel my self-representation changes. According to (Yihong et. al. 2005, 39-40), I am in the level of â€Å"self confidence change and additive change. â€Å" As a postgraduate student, to establish reading habit and critical thinking are also new culture for me. To do my assignment well, all problems should be keen evaluated and analytically critiqued (Atkinson and Longman 2003 cited in Davies and Maldoni). They also suggest that critical thinking can be established by doing a lot of reading. For example, I need to read a lot of references to support my opinion in a discussion essay. Impact to my future There are many Australian cultures which can influence my self identity. However, I have to sort whether it will be positive or negatif impact for me. For the negatif one, such as drinking alcohol habit, I will not allow my self to be influenced by that thing. On the other hand, assertive behaviour and the way how Australian people appreciate someone else will give the positive impact for me. In the future, my self will be more assertive and will appreciate people more. Another good impact for me is high level of English proficiency. Practising english everyday will make non-native speaker highly confident (Yihong et. al. 2005, 39-40). Conclusion The concept of identity still changes and many experts try to formulate the suitable definition of identity. New culture and language use which faced by international student will affect to their self identity. These new lenses might have positive or negative impact to them. They will have high self-confidence in interacting to another people. However, they should make a choice to absorb whether native culture is acceptable to be used as their self-representation or not. Reference Borowski, E. J. 1976. Identity and Personal Identity. Mind. 85 (340) : 481-502. http://links. jstor. org/sici? sici=00264423%28197610%292%3A85%3A340%3C481%3AIAPI%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-L (accessed at 24 March 2008). Burke, P. J. and D. C. Reitzes. 1981. The link between identity and role performance Social Psychology Quarterly. 44 (2) : 83-92. http://links. jstor. org/sici? sici=01902725%28198106%2944%3A2%3C83%3ATLBIAR%3E2. 0. CO%3B2 (accessed at 20 March 2008). Cohen, A. P. 1993. Culture as identity: An anthropologist’s view. New Literary History. 24 (1): 195-209. http://links. jstor. org/sici? sici=00286087%28199324%2924%3A1%3C195%3ACAIAAV%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-R (accessed at 27 March 2008). Davies, A. and A. Maldoni. Meeting the Needs of International Postgraduate Students: Modifying the EAP Curriculum for Masters Preparation Programs. http://www. englishaustralia. com. au/index. cgi? E=hcatfuncs&PT=sl&X=getdoc&Lev1=pub_c05_07&Lev2=c04_davie. (accessed at 27 March 2008). Fearon, J. D. 1999. What is identity (as we now use the word). Department of Political Science. Stanford University. http://www. stanford. edu/~jfearon/papers/iden1v2. pdf (accessed at 24 March 2008). Ferdman, B. M. 1990. Literacy and Cultural Identity. Harvard Educational Review. 60 (2): 181. Academic Research Library. http://eric. ed. gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini. jsp ?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ408106&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ408106. (accessed at 27 March 2008). Hall, S. 1990. Culture Identity and Diaspora. http://www. lwbooks. co. uk/ReadingRoom/public/IdentityDiaspora. pdf. (accessed at 27 March 2008). Kagan, H. and Cohen, J. 1990. 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Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay Essay Example

Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay Essay Example Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay Paper Romulus My Father Pursuit of Happyness Belonging Essay Paper ‘Everything has its own place and function. That applies to people, although many dont seem to realize it, stuck as they are in the wrong job, the wrong marriage, or the wrong house. When you know and respect your Inner Nature, you know where you belong. You also know where you dont belong. ’ Benjamin Hoff Discuss this statement, focusing on how composers of texts represent the concept of belonging. In your answer, refer to your prescribed text (‘Romulus My Father’) and ONE related text of your choosing. You should write no more than 1000 words. Sense of belonging coming from father, in father son relationship. This can be seen in both, Raimond Gaita’s elegiac memoir, ‘Romulus, My Father’ and Gabriele Muccino’s 2006 film, ‘the pursuit of happyness’. Both texts demonstrate the relationship between a farther and his son and the extreme amounts of love and pain that they are willing to go through for the child to make sure that they belong. Both fathers when growing up had no real father figures. Without their fathers a grow with them a be their idol, they lacked a sense of belonging that made them feel disjointed from the rest of society. As a result, when they have their own sons they go the extra mile to provide and care for their son in every way possible. The sons in both texts have a strong sense of belonging to their fathers and trust them in everything. ‘The pursuit of happyness’ subway/bathroom scene demonstrates this love and sense of belonging between father and child. The scene starts with a shot from above the heads of the protagonist, Chris Gardner, and his son, and looks down the subway as the last train of the night leaves and they are left alone in the subway. This metaphorically states how Chris feels, the last train has left without me and my son, every opportunity has passed. The scene then skips to Chris and Christopher sitting on a bench in the railway, with a distance between them. Christopher than gives his father an opportunity to make this experience easier for him, telling Christopher that the machines that he always carries around and is trying to sell, are time machines. Chris leads his son into the bathroom, while he is in the fantasy where they stay the night. Chris is shielding Christopher from the hard times that they are going through demonstrating the love that he has for his son but also the trust and sense of belonging he has in his dad. This is an emotive scene that is made to make the responder feel sympathy. In ‘Romulus my father’, a similar scenario plays out. Romulus’ father died early in Romulus’ life. Romulus lived in poverty and constantly moved between his grandparents and mothers house, but never belonged to either. He left at 13 to find work, but was always on the move, never really belonging anywhere. They moved to Australia where Romulus worked some hours away from Christine his wife and their son, Raimond. Christine neglected Raimond and was unfaithful to Romulus. Romulus believed it to be better if Raimond was to come to the camp where they were working. Romulus and Hora, Romulus’ closest friend, split their shifts so one of them could always care for young Raimond. Raimond is unaware of the sacrifices that his father and Hora gave up, at that age, in their only opportunity of rest in the day to provide Raimond with care and to give him a place to belong. Romulus didn’t have a true sense of belonging to anyone or thing except for Raimond. And for him he would go to the ends of the earth to provide and care for him. Raimonds has had the opportunity to belong and relate to others through what his father has done for him. â€Å"On many occasions in my life I have had the need to say, and thankfully have been able to say: I know what a good workman is; I know what an honest man is; I know what friendship is; I know because I remember these things in the person of my father† The repetition of ‘I know’ expresses how highly he holds up his father and how no one will be able to tell him otherwise.. The tone of the quote, is proud. Roof top scene in pursuit of happyness, where they are play basketball and Chris tells Christopher that he won’t make it in basketball, but realized that this crushed his dream, so then says â€Å"don’t ever let somebody tell you that you can’t do something, not even me†